Hourglass Dolphin Facts

Hourglass dolphins are part of class Mammalia and are found throughout the cold Antarctic waters, though they have been spotted as far north as the coasts of Chile. Their generic name, Lagenorhynchus, is derived from the Latin word for â€Å"flagon nosed† because animals in this genus have stubby rostrums. Their Latin name cruciger means â€Å"cross-bearing† for the hourglass pattern on their backs. Hourglass dolphins are known for their unique black and white pattern and are the only species of dolphin with dorsal fins found below the Antarctic convergence point. Fast Facts Scientific Name: Lagenorhynchus crucigerCommon Names: Hourglass dolphinBasic Animal Group: MammalSize: Up to 6 feet longWeight: Up to 265 poundsLife Span: UnknownDiet: Fish, squid, crustaceansHabitat: Antarctic and sub-Antarctic ocean watersPopulation: Estimated 145,000Conservation Status: Least ConcernFun Fact: These mammals are found in waters ranging from 32 to 55 degrees Fahrenheit. Description Hourglass dolphin illustration. Dorling Kindersley / Getty Images These creatures’ bodies are mostly black with one patch of white that stretches from the beak to the dorsal fin and another that starts at the dorsal fin and connects at the tail. This pattern of white on their bodies creates an hourglass shape, earning them the name of hourglass dolphins. Their bodies are short and stocky, and their dorsal fins are broad at the base and hooked on the top. Adult males have been spotted with â€Å"swept-back† dorsal fins. Additionally, they have conical teeth, with 26 to 34 teeth in the upper jaw and 27 to 35 in the lower jaw. Habitat and Distribution Range of the Hourglass Dolphin. Wikimedia Commons / Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported  /   These dolphins live in the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic waters. They are the only dolphin species with a dorsal fin that lives below the Antarctic convergence point. They are thought to have north-south migration patterns following the West Wind drift, living in the southern cool waters in the summer and moving north in the winter months. The farthest extent of their northern migration is currently unknown. Diet and Behavior Due to their cold and remote habitat along with their natural timidity, direct observation of the diet, habits and behaviors of the hourglass dolphin can be quite difficult. This limits the amount of information that scientists know about them. What scientists do know has come from limited studies of a small number of hourglass dolphins. Not much is known about the hourglass dolphins diet, but they have been spotted eating crustaceans like shrimp, squid, and small fish. They have also been seen feeding among plankton blooms. Because these creatures feed near the surface, they also attract seabird congregations, which allows researchers to find and observe these creatures. Hourglass dolphins are social creatures and commonly travel in groups of around 10 individuals, but can be found  in groups as large as 100 individuals. They spend most of their time in deep waters but can be found closer to land in shallow bays and islands. They feed among other cetaceans, such as pilot and minke whales. Scientists have also spotted them traveling with pilot and minke whales, as well as right whale dolphins and killer whales. Hourglass dolphins can reach speeds of up to 14 mph, often making a lot of spray as they surface to breathe. They love to play in the waves generated by larger animals and also enjoy riding in the waves created by boats. They are thought to migrate via the West Wind Drift to warmer waters during the winter months. Reproduction and Offspring Hourglass dolphins in Drake Passage. Wikimedia Commons / Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported /  Lomvi2 Not much is known about the mating behavior of the animals. Males and females reaching sexual maturity or attaining sexual maturity are 70 inches and 73 inches respectively, but their ages of sexual maturity are not known. The average gestation period for females is around 12 months. Based on the behavior of other species in the genus, hourglass females are thought to only give birth in the winter months from August to October, averaging just one calf per birth. The calf is as small as 35 inches at birth. These young are able to swim with their mothers at birth and are nursed by her for 12 to 18 months before being weaned off her milk. Conservation Status Hourglass dolphins are designated as Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Population trends are relatively unknown and there are currently no identified threats. Scientists speculate that this is because these creatures live so far away from human society. However, scientists are concerned that global warming could raise sea temperatures and disrupt their migration patterns. Sources Braulik, G. Hourglass Dolphin. IUCN Red List Of Threatened Species, 2018, https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/11144/50361701#population.Callahan, Christopher. Lagenorhynchus Cruciger (Hourglass Dolphin). Animal Diversity Web, 2003, https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Lagenorhynchus_cruciger/.Hourglass Dolphin. Oceana, https://oceana.org/marine-life/marine-mammals/hourglass-dolphin.Hourglass Dolphins. Marinebio Conservation Society.Org, https://marinebio.org/species/hourglass-dolphins/lagenorhynchus-cruciger/.Hourglass Dolphin. Whale Dolphin Conservation USA, https://us.whales.org/whales-dolphins/species-guide/hourglass-dolphin/.

Race and Class in Society Essay - 1350 Words

Race and Class in Society Race and class are increasingly important in the world today; yet, few sources focus on the similarities of these issues at a regional or global level. Ideologies of race were used to justify colonialism, conquest and annihilation of non-European peoples, slavery, indentured labor, fascism and Nazism. Yet, a common impression among men and women of color is that race and class issues are unique to their own particular community. Still, it is only through awareness of how these issues affect different communities that a common bond and understanding can be developed across racial, ethnic, cultural and class barriers. Both governments and media present the image of an integrated, egalitarian society, which in†¦show more content†¦The Forbes list goes a few steps further and not only supplies information about yearly earnings, but goes into detail regarding individuals assets and their command over monetary resources. African Americans are very well represented in the first lis t, which generates an optimistic view of how black Americans have progressed economically in the United States. Conversely, the near absence of blacks on the Forbes list paints a much more pessimistic outlook. Economists argue that racial differences in wealth are a consequence of disparate class and human capital credentials such as age, education, experience and skills, as well as ones propensity to save and consume. Sociology of wealth seeks to properly situate the social context in which wealth generation occurs. It attempts to account for the racial differences in wealth holdings by demonstrating the diverse social circumstances that blacks and whites face. Both race and class tremendously affect the different investment opportunities that are available to whites and blacks, resulting in a wealth gap. 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Hydraulic Fracturing Free Essays

Is hydrologic fracturing a suitable form of energy production? Over the past 85 years, the American Petroleum Institute, API, has been developing and refining engineering standards and practices for the industry. The past decade has brought about a new practice which involves hydraulic fracturing in order to produce oil and natural gas in places where conventional technologies are ineffective. This is a rather in depth process. We will write a custom essay sample on Hydraulic Fracturing or any similar topic only for you Order Now Firstly, a production drill is drilled through the rock layers to intersect the coal seem that contains coal bed methane, CBM. Next, fractures are created or existing fractures are enlarged in the coal seem so that the CBM can be drawn from the well and pumped to the surface. These fractures are created or enlarged by using a thick water-based fluid which is gradually increased by rate and pressure. Then, over time the coal seam is unable to keep up with the fracturing fluid which results in high pressure causing the coal to fracture along the weaknesses within. Sand is pumped into these fractures to keep them ‘propped’ open after the pressures are released. The first diagram in the appendix shows what occurs in the subsurface during a typical hydraulic fracturing event. After a period of fluid recovery or groundwater extraction is when the extraction of CBM occurs. As pumping continues, the pressure eventually decreases so that the methane desorbs from the coal, flows and is extracted through the production well. The fracture created acts as a conduit in the rock or coal formation, allowing the CBM to flow more freely from the coal seems through the fracture system and to the production where gas is pumped to the surface. Unlike conventional gas production, the amount of water extracted declines proportionally with increasing CBM production (US EPA, 2004). The demand of natural gas is expected to increase drastically over the next 20 years, causing the need for innovative production to fill the growing demand. Many may believe that there are other ways to fulfill the need of natural gas, due to production concerns, but this is a suitable form of energy production. Hydraulic fracturing should be used because it will provide a significant increase in jobs, economic growth, and clean burning energy. The Keystone XL pipeline has had much controversy in the news recently. This pipeline is an extension onto the existing pipeline running from Canada to the United States. The pipeline would increase crude oil capacity between the two countries allowing for a more diverse supply among the United States’ worldwide crude oil sources, shorten the transportation pathway for crude oil supplies, and increase the crude oil supplies from a major non-organization of petroleum exporting countries producer. â€Å"The use of hydraulic fracturing will help make our country more energy self-reliant and more secure† (Green, 2012). This statement was made by the API President and CEO, Jack Gerard during the second State of American Energy event January 4. He also proceeded to state that the United State’s resources on and offshore are among the largest in the world. This means that with the right policies in place, there could be 100 percent of our liquid fuel needs supplied domestically and from Canada by 2026. Also, with a pro-energy development approach 1 million new US jobs by 2018 could be produced along with billions of dollars in additional revenue to government (Green, 2012). The increase in jobs from this production is approximately 334,000 in the past two years after the 3 million manufacturing jobs lost from 2001-2007. Hydraulic fracturing has rapidly increased the domestic production of natural gas and has seen low domestic prices for households. Figure five below shows the increase in production rates over the last several years (Green, 2012). The oppositions to this vision are primarily political on an ecological level. In order for the process to run smoothly water use is needed. Many think that the water used for hydraulic fracturing could deplete fresh water supplies and impact aquatic habitat. Some also say that the groundwater could be contaminated. Some hydraulic fracturing fluids can also contain chemicals. Typically a mixture of water, proppants and chemicals are what is pumped into the rock or coal to fracture the wells. Eco-friendly leaders and environmentalists are taking a stand to state that these chemicals, use of water and damage to groundwater are not acceptable and this energy method should not be used. Firstly, chemicals typically make up just 0. and 2% of the total volume of the fracturing fluid with the majority being water. Secondly, natural gas emits fewer greenhouse gases than other fossil fuels, about half as much of carbon dioxide as coal which contributes to less global warming. Thirdly, with the halting of fracturing in some states due to pressures from environmental and public health groups asking the EPA for tests and proof that it is safe to continue with this type of energy production, supporters are concerned that it could hinder U. S. job growth and energy output in a time of need (McLendon, 2010). The tests from the EPA will take roughly two years, so until then it is a waiting process. As you can see, this is a roughly new energy production that does need to be researched more. From my point of view the pros seem to outweigh the cons. I think more tests and actual data about contamination and whether it is really safe will be the true test. The increase in jobs, economic growth, and clean burning energy is most definitely what this country needs right now. The true outlook on this issue will come towards the later part of this year when the test results conclude. References Green, M. (2012, January 05). Starting the energy debate. Retrieved from http://energytomorrow. org/blog/starting-the-energy-debate/ McLendon, R. (2010, December 10). Big frack attack: Is hydraulic fracturing safe?. Retrieved from http://www. mnn. com/earth-matters/translating-uncle-sam/stories/big-frack-attack-is-hydraulic-fracturing-safe US EPA. (2004, June). Evaluation of impacts to underground sources of drinking water by hydraulic fracturing of coalbed methane reservoirs. Retrieved from http://www. epa. gov/safewater/uic/pdfs/cbmstudy_attach_uic_exec_summ. pdf Appendix How to cite Hydraulic Fracturing, Papers Hydraulic Fracturing Free Essays What is hydraulic fracturing or fracking, and is it safe for our environment? What types of environmental issues are there with fracking? Are the laws in place for fracking good enough or should they be stronger? How much energy does the United States need for the future and is hydraulic fracturing the answer? These are all good questions that deserve good answers. Simply put hydraulic fracturing is taking a lot of water pressure and blasting it deep into the earth to create fractures in rock. By creating those fractures it allows oil and natural gas to seep out of the well within the rock. We will write a custom essay sample on Hydraulic Fracturing or any similar topic only for you Order Now Technically speaking, hydraulic fracturing is drilling into the earth. Steel pipes are placed inside the well as companies drill deeper into the earth. This is done to ensure that no groundwater is contaminated during the procedure. Once the well is at the desired depth, water, sand and chemicals are forced down the well with immense pressure. Depending on the drilling site, the chemicals that are used will vary. Different sites require different chemicals. It is because of these chemicals that there are environmental issues. There are generally four major environmental issues to speak of. Water contamination, management of waste water, air quality and the chemicals used are those major issues. Water contamination may be the largest issue at hand though. Water contamination is normally done through spills and faulty well construction. This can be such a major issue because if test are not done on a regular basis people may be drinking and bathing in harmful water. â€Å"In 2010, residents of Pavilion, Wyoming complained about the condition of their well water. In December 2011, EPA released a report finding that compounds associated with fracking chemicals had been detected in the groundwater beneath the community and health officials advised residents not to drink the water. † (Reece O’Day) In this particular instant the people of Pavilion may very well have developed major health issues due to fracking. It took at least a year for anyone to come to a conclusion as to what was wrong with the water. Mismanagement of the waste water can be almost as bad as water contamination. The waste water that comes from fracking has a number of things in it that are harmful to the environment. The waste water can contain anything from radioactive materials to the chemicals used in the process. However, there are several things that can be done with the waste water but most of them aren’t really solutions. In fact the only real solution is taking the water to a treatment or recycling facility. The other alternatives include surface impoundments for storage or deep well injections. Neither of these options takes care of the problem. They are simply out of sight, out of mind solutions. Air quality is another issue with fracking. The process will release methane and other greenhouse gasses. While there are steps being taken to reduce these gasses, they are still being emitted into our atmosphere. The gasses that are released into the atmosphere are contributing to the global climate change. Too much of these gasses and the world will start to shut down and die. The last major issue with hydraulic fracturing is the chemicals that are used in the process. Because each well requires different chemicals operators are only required to keep records of the chemicals they use. There is a long list of chemicals that are generally used in fracking. Hydrochloric Acid, Acetic Acid and Thioglycolic Acid are just some of the chemicals that are being used. State and federal regulations on hydraulic fracturing are trying to achieve the same end goal. As with all state and federal laws and regulations, federal is more broad and simple. State law and regulations tend to be more precise and detailed. They take what federal has set in place and expand on it. Federal regulations for hydraulic fracturing are truly simple. They really only focus on three things, the constructions of the well, the treatment of flow back water and the discloser of the chemicals used in the process. The integrity of the well most be verified using a cement bond log. All the chemicals that are used must be submitted to the Bureau of Land Management. State regulations however, are much more in depth. Each state has their own laws and regulations. Wyoming for example requires that all water supplies within a quart mile of drilling sites be identified before drilling. While Pennsylvania requires that pressure testing is done prior to completion. New York on the other hand focuses more on visual, noise, greenhouse gas and invasive species mitigation plans. While each state has their own rules and regulations, they are all trying to do the same thing, protect their states land and best interest, as well as bring down the price of energy and lower Americas dependency on foreign fuels. America’s energy demand will almost definitely never go down. It is probably a safe bet to say that it won’t even maintain its current level. As more and more people come in to America and lifespans continue to get longer, the need for more energy is almost certainly going to continue to rise. Hydraulic Fracturing is a relatively safe way for America to meet its growing demand for energy. According to the Institute for Energy research’s Senior Vice President Daniel Kish â€Å"Safe, innovative hydraulic fracturing technologies have freed the United States from years of fear mongering that America’s energy future was bleak.† (Unk) Furthermore â€Å"Of the 900,000 barrels per day increase Energy Information Administration has reported, 750,000 of it came from shale plays on non-federal lands in Texas and North Dakota. † (Unk) With all that being stated, it looks like America will be ok in the near future. Who’s to say what will happen in the future but with hydraulic fracturing America will be better off. While some people may say that we should stop hydraulic fracturing others are saying just the opposite. The environmental issues that come with fracking are not necessarily bad enough to stop the process. Without the fuels we get from the process, America may not be able to produce or obtain enough fuel to sustain our energy use. With the laws and regulations that are in place now and the ones that will continue to improve the whole process, fracking may become one of the safest and most reliable sources of energy. There is no doubt that we as a nation will continue to do hydraulic fracturing and continue to broaden the number of sites in use. How to cite Hydraulic Fracturing, Papers

Critically Examine the Trend and Size of Poverty in Hong Kong Society free essay sample

This city has not only the 6th highest per capita GDP, but also the highest Gini coefficient in the world (World Bank, 2011). Fortunately, the Hong Kong government isn’t turning a blind eye towards this dilemma but are instead actively looking for a trade-off between economic performance and social welfare. One notable example is the re-establishment of the Commission on Poverty, it is hoped that a clearly-defined poverty line will shed a new light into the poverty situation in Hong Kong. Another important policy in recent years is the implementation of minimum wage law, which has been in effect for two years aiming to guarantee a basic wage for low-income workers, however its effect on overall employment level in Hong Kong is still to be determined. In this essay, I will first examine the overall trend and size of poverty in Hong Kong, then move on to assess the effectiveness of the present social security system, as well as the minimum wage in eradicating poverty in Hong Kong. Poverty, is an ambiguous term especially in Hong Kong. The United Nations places the benchmark for poverty as living under a monthly income less than or equal to half of the median household income of equal size households. This is the definition that the Commission on Poverty is likely to adopt. But before the launch of official poverty line people are considered poor only if they apply for Comprehensive Social Security Assistance (CSSA), which eligibility is largely determined by nominal income. As a result, the number of people applying for CSSA decreased after minimum wage law has been imposed. In this essay therefore, I will adopt the UN definition of poverty in examining its trend and size in Hong Kong. Poverty rate up to the year 2011 was the lowest since that of 2001. Before 2011, there had been an overall increasing trend in both the number of households living in poverty as well as the poverty rate. In this sense, 2011 can be seen as a watershed year; the poverty rate plummeted to 17. 1% when compared to 17. 9% in the previous year, which meant a reduction of 55000 people suffering from poverty. Additionally, the total number of poor households had been rising from 2001 to 2007, but this trend started to decline from then on. The total number of poor households in 2011 was 444,000, when compared with that of the years 2007 and 2010; there had been a reduction of 11,000 and 7000 households respectively. In spite of the declining poverty trend and size, income disparity in Hong Kong has been worsening. In the year 2001, the median monthly income of high-income group was $31,000 while that of low-income group was $10,000, which meant that the former was 3. 1 times that of the latter. However, this disparity continued to grow and in the year 2011, the median monthly income of the high-income group increased to $35,000, while that of the low-income group plunged to $9000, which meant that the high-income group had a monthly income 3. 5 times more than that of the low-income group. In brief, it is undeniable that the declining trend and size of poverty has been promising, but that was largely due to the thriving economy instead of governmental efforts, at the same time, the income gap has been widening despite the implementation of minimum wage law. These statistics all indicate that the current social policies are inadequate in eliminating the imminent threat of poverty. The social security system in Hong Kong is a three-tier system consisting of social assistance and social allowance in the form of Comprehensive Social Security Assistance and Old Age Allowance, mandated occupational pension in the form of Mandatory Provident Fund as well as private saving. In the remaining part of the essay, the effectiveness of the above social security policies in lifting poverty will be assessed one by one. The Comprehensive Social Security Assistance was renamed after the Public Assistance Scheme in 1993 has the sole purpose to provide â€Å"a safety net for those who cannot support themselves financially. It is designed to bring their income up to a prescribed level to meet their basic needs. † (Social Welfare Department, 2012) It is a non-contributory and means-tested scheme financed wholly by the government. CSSA payments can be broadly classified into three categories: standard rate, supplements and special grants. Standard Rates from 2012 is divided into 5 types: elderly person aged over 60 or above, ill health adult under 60, disabled child, able-bodied adult aged under 60 and able-bodied child. The amount of standard rates payable to each type differs, but they are under the same guiding principles; the standard rates for children and seniors are higher than those of the adults, rates for single individuals living alone are greater than those of family members, and rates will increase with levels of severity of disability. Tsoi, 2002) Additionally, there are five types of supplements. Long-term supplement is an annual payment to recipients who have been receiving assistance for at least 12 months for the replacement of household and durable goods. Single parent supplement is a monthly payment to single parent families with special difficulties in bringing up their families. Community living supplement is a monthly payment to old, disabled and certified ill-health CSSA recipients living in th e community instead of any institutions. Transport supplement aims to promote social integration and geographical mobility by providing monthly assistance to certified 100% disabled as well as population between 12 to 64 years of age. Last but not least, the intention of the residential care supplement is to relieve the accommodation burdens of old, disabled and certified ill-health CSSA applicants who are not living in subsidised housing estates. Besides, a range of special grants are also set up to meet applicants’ special needs including school fees, school-related expenses, essential traveling expenses and so on. Famous English philosopher Midgley once commented that redistributing wealth in the form of social assistance has the â€Å"most direct potential impact on the poverty problem. † She identified three necessary conditions in order to fully realize this potential, first, social assistance must be financial by progressive taxation, second, the level of benefit provided must be sufficient to raise recipients out of poverty and third, needy people must have easy access to social assistance schemes and that these schemes would not deter them from applying for help. Tsoi, 2002). With applies the above mentioned three principles to Hong Kong, it is worthy to highlight that Hong Kong only fulfilled the first condition out of the three. In the following paragraphs, the low effectiveness of the CSSA will be discussed with respect to its level of benefits, process of application as well as incentives for its recipients to reintegrate into the job market. The level of benefits by the standard rates of the CSSA cannot reflect the actual needs of its recipients, but are in fact set arbitrarily. At the oment, the standard rates of CSSA recipients are reviewed and adjusted annually by the Legislative Council to reflect the changes in Price Level by the Census and Statistics Department. The Consumption Price Index however, is a reference to the household expenditure of the 25% of the population with the lowest income. It is highly dubious as to whether the household expenditures of the poor households would be an authentic indicator and correspond to what they actually need to support their daily living. In addition, some CSSA recipients described the process of application as humiliating and intimidating. According to a joint project by the Department of Applied Social Sciences in Polytechnic University and Oxfam Hong Kong on Perception and Utilization of the CSSA in 2007, it was found that some recipients felt that their applications were always delayed and mishandled. Some applicants even accused the social security officers as having bad manners and lack empathy. These findings were found out after in-depth interviews and group discussion, although it is questionable as to the representativeness of the sample size, the critique to the â€Å"humiliating† application procedures must point to some bearing of truth that the CSSA recipients feel. Besides, some social workers in the study also complained that â€Å"some officers tend to insult and threaten the applicants by making unreasonable requests†. Going back to Midgley’s third condition in order to eradicate poverty which concerns the access to social security must not deter the needy from applying; the Social Services Department could clearly do a better job. Furthermore, there is always an unspoken concern that receiving CSSA would encourage a â€Å"dependency culture†, especially when the CSSA mechanisms do not encourage able-bodied recipients to attain economic independence. Contrary to common misconception that only able-bodied lazy people and new immigrants would apply for CSSA, most CSSA applicants, amounting to 60% (Oxfam, 2007) treat social security as the last resort to alleviate their dire financial circumstances. However, due to a lack of support services, only 8%-10% of able-bodied CSSA recipients are able to re-enter the competitive job market (Ming Pao Daily News, 2000) through the Special Job Attachment Programme. In addition, the additional cost for attempting to re-enter the job market may ut an extra toll on the families receiving CSSA, let alone some single parent’s families with insufficient child-care facilities may choose to keep on receiving welfare instead of working. In short, CSSA do not provide sufficient incentive for its recipients to re-join the work force, which is the only way to escape poverty. Another aspect of the social security system in Hong Kong is mandated occupational pension, which is in the form of Mandatory Provident Fund in Hong Kong. It is a compulsory, occupation-related scheme with defined monthly contribution by both employers and employees. The Mandatory Provident Fund Schemes Ordinance was passed in 2000 with the hope of strengthening the safety net and retirement protection. Contribution to the MPF is mandated to be 10% of the employee’s income with which 5% is contributed by his/her employer. Besides, the mandatory contribution is adjusted with relevance to employees’ income. After the implementation of minimum wage, the monthly relevant income is readjusted, for employees with monthly income less than $6500, only their employers are mandated to contribute 5% of relevant income, this becomes the minimum contribution. On the other hand, for employees with income higher than $25000, both employers and employees are required to contribute $1250, this becomes the maximum contribution. All MPF contributions will be injected into registered MPF trustee in the market chosen by the employers, but now, employees will be able to choose new MPF scheme annually based on their performance. In the following paragraphs, the limitations of the MPF scheme will be discussed including its limited coverage as well as inadequate retirement protection which undoubtedly hamper its effectiveness. As aforementioned, MPF is an employment-related protection scheme, which means that only people with long-term employment contract will receive retirement protection. The MPF only have limited coverage and do not have universal protection as people excluded from the workforce including the sick, the disabled, housewives, hawkers, domestic employees and so on are unprotected, this amount to quite a sizable portion in the population. Besides, the employers might try to evade from the mandated contributions by altering the terms of employment contract. Employers are legally bound to contribute to MPF for their employees if they are employed for more than 60 days, therefore, some employers may deliberately change the employment contract to 59 days or terminate the contract and re-employ the employees. In brief, the MPF scheme does not provided for universal protection in the sense that a significant portion of the population is left unprotected, let alone some canny employers attempt to alter the employment contract in order to avoid contributing to their employees’ retirement protection scheme. Furthermore, the predicament of the MPF Scheme is that despite its objective is to provide retirement protection and reinforce the safety net, the protection is in fact far from sufficient. MPF is a define-contribution scheme but it is not a defined-benefits scheme, which meant that employees’ contribution is contingent upon many factors including the duration of contribution, returns from investments by the trustees after deducing the high administrative and transaction costs incurred, as well as the amount of contribution. This led to the inevitable unpredictability of benefits which is neither guaranteed by the trustees nor protected by the government. Besides, the scheme was introduced only in 2000, which meant that people around retirement age at that time would receive either little or no protection at all due to the short contribution period. At the moment, elderly poverty was one of the severest forms of poverty in Hong Kong. In short, contrary to its initial intention, the MPF does not guarantee retirement protection, instead only added more uncertainties and unpredictability to lives after retirement. The statutory minimum wage was passed in 2010 and fully implemented Labour Day of 2011. It aims at â€Å"striking an appropriate balance between forestalling excessively low wages and minimising the loss of low-paid jobs while sustaining Hong Kong’s economic growth and competitiveness (Labour Department, 2011). The initial minimum wage rate was set at $28, but the commission set up by the government to review the minimum wage rate biannually has agreed to increase to $30 an hour. From a theoretical standpoint, setting up a wage floor would upset the balance of the labour market by forcing some low skill workers to be laid off. Nevertheless, the government estimated that 273800 grassroot workers would benefit from the law and could sustain a basic level of living by avoiding from being underpaid. After about two years since the law has passed, however, it seems that reports about employers trying to cut the fringe benefits of employees were not uncommon and the actual effect and repercussion of minimum wage on the labour market is yet to be unravelled. In the following essay, I will examine the implementation of minimum wage law with regard to its effectiveness in eradicating poverty in Hong Kong. In order to assess the effectiveness of minimum wage, the first indicator is changes in monthly income of the lower income groups when compared with higher income groups in the lower half year of 2011. If we divide the whole population equally into ten decile groups with the first decile group being the poorest 10% of the people and the tenth decile group being the wealthiest 10%, it was found that in the first three decile groups all experience increase in monthly income ranging from 6. 9% to 9. 3%, while the last three decile groups experience either no change or negative growth in their monthly income (HKCSS, 2011). However, looking at income alone would not be a comprehensive assessment of the effect of minimum wage law given that the economic began to boom around the time minimum wage was implemented. Therefore, a much more reliable assessment would be to compare the living standards of low income households before and after the minimum wage came into force. A study commissioned by Oxfam Hong Kong adopted a two-stage stratified surveys that interview impoverished households with at least one family member receiving minimum wage and compare their livelihood from March 2011 to January 2012. In the following paragraphs, findings from this study will be further analysed. In terms of monthly income, the minimum wage law has indeed increase the nominal household income. About 70% of interviewees, representing 131125 families reported an increase in household income after the introduction of minimum wage. Moreover, 72. 6% of them also reported a rise in individual workers’ income. In spite of an increase in monthly income and in fact, hourly income as well, working hours of workers decreased. The average hourly wage of respondents who stayed in the same job before and after implementation of minimum wage increased, 56. 8% of them even receive an hourly wage that exceeded $28. However, the same group of people who remain in the same job also experience an average cut of about 13. 9 working hours. This reduction of working hour is more often than not, at the expense of the workers’ benefit such as cancelling paid lunch hour or meal break and no overtime payment and so on. 46. % of respondents complained that the previously paid rest days were cancelled since the enforcement of minimum wage law. Taking into account of the loss of paid rest days as well as other fringe benefits, coupled with the reduction in working hours, over half of the respondents, 55. 8% of them experienced a drop in individual income despite the apparent increase in nominal monthly income. In the paragraph above concerning CSSA recipients, it was briefly mentioned that they treat social assistanc e as their last resort to mitigate their financial situation. In fact, most of them felt â€Å"perceivable prejudice† against them. The introduction of minimum wage has a wide application, but it affects most significantly low-income jobs that CSSA recipients crave. About half of the respondents receiving CSSA in the Oxfam study affirm the effectiveness of wage floor as an impetus to quit receiving social assistance. This in brief, could address the need of CSSA recipients to self-reliance and eliminate the stigmatization or label that they feel attached to them by re-entering the job market. Nonetheless, increase in income to a certain extent does not mean or signify poverty alleviation. The most pivotal finding in the Oxfam study is that it reveals 40. 5% of households still live in deprivation despite the minimum wage law. This is because they define â€Å"deprivation† as the inabilities to afford at least three items that are dubbed essential by most Hong Kong residents including dental check-ups, leisure activities, afford to go to private clinics when sick and tea house and so on. According to Townsend (1979), â€Å"a person is considered to be in poverty if he or she does not have enough resources to enable him or her to participate in normal activities commonly engaged by ordinary members in the community and therefore cannot become fully integrated into the mainstream of society. † Therefore, when 40. 5% of respondents, representing 531354 households are still deprived of a chance to engage in social activities simply due to the fact that they still could not afford the items they need highlighted just how ineffective minimum wage legislation has been in eradicating poverty. In conclusion, lifting people out of poverty is a difficult problem that could not be solved by any social policy alone, let alone the many flaws and limitations that are embedded in social policies. However, it is only through identifying the imperfection in social welfare policies could we make improvement on them and hopefully attain the final goal of eradicating poverty at the end.